Raleigh's Discoveries in the New World The lure of vegetable culture In 1584, Queen Elizabeth I charged Sir Walter Raleigh to discover and colonize lands in the New World on behalf of England. This article discusses the efforts and expeditions organized under Raleigh's patronage to found a colony in the current-day North Carolina. Going beyond the chronological history of the doomed Roanoke colony, the author provides insights into relations between the colonists and their native counterparts, discusses the botanical riches of the region, and argues that Raleigh's efforts did not end in failure, as commonly might be thought. Tonia Renae Gaillard A native of Eleajora, Dr. Gaillard completed her post-graduate studies in Colonial American History in 2033. Following these studies, she became an Associate Professor at DeBare State University before joining Quetrane University’s faculty. She has chaired the university’s Department of History since 2048. Dr. Gaillard’s extensive writings include The Politics Underlying the Salem Witch Trials, Williamsburg’s Role in the Revolution,Benjamin Franklin: Scientist, Inventor, and Politician, and Native American Culture and the "True Faith." She is currently working on a biography of Simon Kenton, whose role in pioneering Kentucky has been overshadowed by fellow backwoodsman Daniel Boone. Department Chair Quetrane University tgaillard@quetrane.hist.edu New World discoveries American colonial history English 16th century history
Introduction On March 25, 1584, Queen Elizabeth I of England charged Sir Walter Raleigh to
discover, search, find out, and view such remote, heathen and barbarous lands, countries, and territories, not actually possessed of any Christian Prince, nor inhabited by Christian People
That same year Raleigh sent two captains, Philip Amades and Arthur Barlowe, from England to Hispaniola and the Canary Islands; from there, the captains were instructed to scout the lands northeast of those already claimed by Spain, to wit, Florida. This land — now encompassing the Carolinas and Virginia — was claimed on behalf of England and named Virginia, in honor of the Virgin Queen. Information processing, especially text markup, was primitive in the colony. For example, most text stores were in XML! Documents may have looked like this: <teiHeader> <fileDesc> <titleStmt> <title>Farming in the New World</title> ... </titleStmt> </fileDesc> </teiHeader> Notice the paired Tags: <title> and </title> and the primitive use of indenting. Unusual features of the colonists data processing practices included: Tags Meaningful descriptions of the information enclosed by the markers Balance All markup is both opened and closed (or explicitly empty)
Securing a Permanent Colony in the Claimed Lands With land claimed in the New World, an expedition was mounted to establish a settlement. The first expedition failed. Led by Sir Richard Grenville in April 1585, it encompassed 600 men of which 105 remained in the colony while Grenville returned to England for additional provisions. (See .) However, when almost a year passed without Grenville’s return, the remainder of the expeditionary force took advantage of Sir Francis Drake’s arrival to seek return passage to England. It has been argued that the first expedition was not a failure. Richard Grenville did return to the colony with additional provisions not long after Drake’s departure, and he ordered 15 men, supposedly supplied for two years, to remain in the colony while he returned for new settlers. However, it is unknown whether these men were present to greet the subsequent expedition. The second expedition, organized by John White in 1587, fared better. It sailed with seven ships filled with Devon families intent upon establishing a colony in that part of Virginia called Roanoke, a word deriving from the speech of native peoples. [] Two years after founding the Cittie of Raleigh, houses had been built for almost all families residing in the colony, and the colony had celebrated the birth of its first children born in the New World. The first child, grandchild of John White and child of Ananias and Eleanor Dare, was been named Virginia in honor of the sovereign.
Native Plants and Wildlife The European settlers found the New World abundant with commodities known to yield victual and sustenance of man’s life. The first expeditionary force noted that a great variety of berries grew wildly, including raspberries, blueberries, and strawberries. Along with maize, native grain, which could be made into bread, grew in the area. Two other plants — more properly called roots — which could be saved for winter consumption were cassida and chyna. The settlers discovered that while some roots could be eaten much in appearance as they were dug, others had to be boiled before use as a foodstuff. As more fully described below, other plants included beans, and several crops previously unknown to the Europeans: macocqwer (gourds), melden (an herb), planta solis (sunflower — used in a type of bread, as well as for broth), peas (powdered in a mortar), and potatoes.
Gourds The native people grew a variety of large broad-leafed, ground-covering vines which produced what they called macocqwer or gourds. (See .) Varying in color among shades of green, yellow, and orange, these gourds served a number of functions, not chief of which was as a food source. There were two distinct types, soft-shelled and hard-shelled. Of particular interest to the settlers were pumpkins; grown throughout the summer, this gourd remained in the fields until late autumn’s frost. Following harvest, the gourd could be stored throughout the winter and its flesh made into stews.
Gourds While gourds, pumpkins and squashes were new to the English, they were soon discovered to be very useful for warding off starvation.
However, far more important was the hard-skinned gourd. The value of this gourd lay not in its potential as a food source, but rather as a container and serving vessel. Once dried, these gourds were cut and hollowed for use as storage containers, as well as for bowls, ladles, cups, and other types of serving utensils. Indeed, since gourds grew in a variety of shapes and sizes, particular gourds could be selected for their resemblance to the items sought. For the adventurous, the durable objects could be carved and decorated with plant dyes.
Tomatoes Also new to the colonists was the tomato. (See .) Tomatoes were described as thin-skinned succulent fruits with pulpy interiors. Almost Bristol red in color, the fruit was somewhat round in form and the size of a chicken’s egg — not anything approaching the size of modern, cultivated varieties. Of particular importance was the plant’s fecundity. The flowering, bush-like plant bore fruit over a period of months. Thus, a plant could produce as many as 15 tomatoes at a given time.
Tomatoes Tomatoes were among the new fruits discovered in the New World.
Potatoes Another root that proved beneficial was the potato. Similarly, to the cassida mentioned earlier, potatoes were considered roots rather than plants, as the edible portion of the plant lay underground. Given the curious nature of this legume, several examples were brought back from the New World. In fact, Raleigh attempted to cultivate the potato at his estate, Youghall, in Ireland.
Fruits and Nuts The colony abounded with a wealth of fruits and nuts, some not previously known to the Europeans. In addition to mulberries, strawberries, and blueberries already mentioned, one of the more curious fruits found was called medlar by the natives. Medlar was a fruit not unlike cherries in size and color, but with a much sweeter taste. An equally unusual fruit was metaqvesvnnaqvk; notwithstanding its red fruit, that plant’s more important feature lay in the cochinile insects which fed upon its prickly thick leaves In the 16th century, such insects were prized in the making of a vibrant red dye. . Equally abundant in variety and size were nuts. In addition to chestnuts and walnuts, the natives harvested no less than five types of acorns. These somewhat small nuts were either dried in a manner similar to that used in England for malt, or were boiled for broth.
North American Native Plants
Use Plant Part Examples
Vegetables
Seeds Corn
Beans
Fruits Squash
Peppers
Tomatoes
Roots Potatoes
Sweet Potatoes
Teas
Leaves Mountain Mint (Namewuskons)
Dawn Mint (Wabinowusk)
Berries Wintergreen
The First Expeditionary Force’s Colony, 1585-1586 <footnote xml:id="mul5"> <para>This Appendix contains an actual list of the individuals who sailed to the Roanoke Colony in 1585. (<emphasis role="ital">See</emphasis> <citation>Durant, David N., <quote>Raleigh’s Lost Colony</quote>, Appendix I, Atheneum, NY: 1981.</citation>)</para> </footnote> Master Philip Amades, Admirall of the countrie Master Hariot Master Acton Master Edward Stafford Thomas Luddington Master Marvyn Master Gardyner Captaine Vaughan Master Kendall Master Prideox Robert Holecroft Rise Courtney Master Hugh Rogers Thomas Foxe Edward Nugent Darby Glande Edward Kelle John Gostigo Erasmus Clefs Edward Ketcheman John Linsey Thomas Rottenbury Roger Deane John Harris Frauncis Norris Matthewe Lyne Edward Kettell Thomas Wisse Master Thomas Harvie Master Snelling Master Anthony Russe Master Allyne Master Michel Polyson John Cage Thomas Parre William Randes Geffrey Churchman William Farthowe John Taylor Philppe Robyns Thomas Phillipes Valentine Beale James Skinner George Eseven John Chaundeler Philip Blunt Richard Poore Robert Yong Marmaduke Constable Thomas Hesket William Wasse John Fever Daniel Thomas Taylor Richard Humfrey John Wright Gabriell North Robert Biscombe William Backhouse William White Henry Potkin Dennis Barnes Joseph Borges Doughan Gannes William Tenche Randall Latham Thomas Hulme Walter Myll Richard Gilbert Steven Pomarie John Brocke Bennet Harrye James Stevenson Charles Stevenson Christopher Lowde Jeremie Man James Mason David Salter Richard Ireland Thomas Bookener William Philippes Randall Mayne Bennet Chappell Richard Sare James Lasie Smolkin Thomas Smart Robert John Evans Roger Large Humfrey Garden Frauncis Whitton Rowland Griffyn William Millard John Twyt Edwarde Seklemore John Anwike Christopher Marshall David Williams Nicholas Swabber Edward Chipping Sylvester Beching Vincent Cheyne Haunce Walters Edward Barecombe Thomas Skevelabs William Walters The Roanoke Colony, 1587 <footnote xml:id="mul4"> <para>This Appendix contains an actual list of the individuals who sailed to the Roanoke Colony in 1587, as well as the names of children born at the colony. (<emphasis role="ital">See</emphasis> <citation>Durant, David N., <quote>Raleigh’s Lost Colony</quote>, Appendix I, Atheneum, NY: 1981.</citation>)</para> </footnote> Men John White [Governor] Roger Bailie [Assistant] Ananias Dare [Assistant] Christopher Cooper [Assistant] Thomas Stevens [Assistant] John Sampson [Assistant] Dyonis Harvie [Assistant] Roger Prat [Assistant] George Howe [Assistant] Simon Fernando [Assistant] William Willes John Brooke Cutbert White John Bright Clement Tayler William Sole John Cotsmur Humfrey Newton Thomas Colman Thomas Gramme Nicholas Johnson Thomas Warner Anthony Cage John Jones John Tydway Ambrose Viccars Edmond English Thomas Topan Henry Berrye Richard Berrye John Spendlove John Hemmington Thomas Butler Edward Powell John Burden James Hynde Thomas Ellis William Browne Michael Myllet Thomas Smith Richard Kemme Thomas Harris Richard Taverner John Earnest Henry Johnson John Starte Richard Darige William Lucas Arnold Archard John Wright William Dutton Morris Allen William Waters Richard Arthur John Chapman William Clement Robert Little Hugh Tayler Richard Wildye Lewes Wotton Michael Bishop Henry Browne Marke Bennet John Gibbes John Stilman Robert Wilkinson Peter Little John Wyles Brian Wyles George Martyn Hugh Pattenson Martyn Sutton John Farre John Bridger Griffen Jones Richard Shaberdge James Lasie John Cheven Thomas Hewet William Berde Henry Rufoote Richard Tomkins Henry Dorrell Charles Florrie Henry Mylton Henry Payne Thomas Harris William Nicholes Thomas Phevens John Borden Thomas Scot Women Elyoner Dare Margery Harvie Agnes Wood Wenefrid Powell Joyce Archard Jane Jones Elizabeth Glane Jane Pierce Audry Tappan Alis Chapman Emme Merrimoth Colman Margaret Lawrence Joan Warren Jane Mannering Rose Payne Elizabeth Viccars Children John Sampson Robert Ellis Ambrose Viccars Thomas Archard Thomas Humfrey Tomas Smart George Howe John Prat William Wythers Children Born at the Colony Virginia Dare Harvye Native Peoples (who having been in England returned to the colony) Manteo Towaye Bibliography Thorpe, Francis Newton, ed.Charter to Sir Walter Raleigh: 1584, in The Federal and States Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws of the States, Territories, and Colonies Now or Heretofore Forming the United States of America (compiled under Act of Congress of June 30, 1906). 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Native American History of Corn. [online]. Native American Technology and Art. © 1996 [cited 14 Apr 1998].http://www.lib.uconn.edu/NativeTech/cornhusk/cornhusk.html. Dickerson, George. Beyond Turkey: Corn Shaped History, Cuisines. [online]. Ed. D’Lyn Ford. New Mexico State University College of Agriculture & Home Economics, 11 Nov 1997 [cited 14 Apr 1998].http://elroy.nmsu.edu/CAHE/press/corn_history1997.html. Borio, Gene.Smoking in England — Elizabethan, excerpted from Alfred H. Dunhill’s The Gentle Art of Smoking. [online]. Library of Congress catalog card #54-10495 (1954). The Tobacco BBS [cited 20 May 1998].http://www.tobacco.org/History/Elizabethan_smoking.html. First English Settlement in the New World. [online]. [cited 13 Apr 1998].http://hal.dcr.state.nc.us/nc/ncsites/English1.htm#First. Virginia Dare, in Tales from the Coast! [online]. ICW-NET © 1998 [cited 13 Apr 1998].http://www.outerbanks-nc.com/manteo/history/vadare.htm.