But wait, there’s more!Balisage: The Markup Conference 2008August 12 - 15, 2008XML has been widely adopted and forms part of the infrastructure of most modern information technology. We have a satisfyingly large collection of XML vocabularies and XML tools. Is it time to declare victory and go home yet? Or is there more to do?C. M.Sperberg-McQueenC. M. Sperberg-McQueen is a member of the technical staff of the World Wide Web Consortium. He has served as co-editor of the XML 1.0 specification, the Guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative, and the XML Schema Definition Language (XSDL) 1.1 specification. He holds a doctorate in comparative literature. Member of the technical staffWorld Wide Web Consortium / MITCopyright © 2008 by the author. Used with permission.Some members of the audience will already be familiar with the phrase that is my title today: But wait. There’s more. But not everyone will be, so I had better start with a few words about Yuri Rubinsky. Yuri was a significant figure in the history of descriptive markup. He ran a software company, SoftQuad, that sold a popular SGML editor called Author/Editor and later on an HTML editor called HoTMetaL, based on Author/Editor, and later still (after Yuri’s time) SoftQuad created XMetal, which is still a popular application although it has changed hands a number of times since SoftQuad was acquired by Corel some years ago.I am indebted to Tonya Gaylord of Mulberry Technologies for transcribing the tape of this talk. I have mostly left the wording alone, but I’ve supplied missing words and recast a few sentences whose structure got away from me when the talk was being given, or whose structure would not be as clear in print as it was in oral presentation.Now, Yuri was a sweet — and sometimes sour — but a sweet, friendly, persuasive man: well-liked in the community and well deserving of being liked. He made a tremendous impact on a lot of us, including many of us in this room. And he died young. So if after this talk, you ask some of us old-timers about him, you may catch us lurching unpredictably back and forth between laughter and husky-voiced reminiscences.As an engaging and persuasive sort of guy, Yuri was, of course, a pretty good salesman. And he was also an enthusiastic and committed cheerleader for the technology of descriptive markup and the freedom and responsibility that is entailed by the idea of giving ownership of the data to the creators of the data. Sometimes these two roles of salesman and cheerleader came into a state of, well, if not conflict, then at least a state of tension.There’s a story that Yuri was once on a sales call with a colleague talking to some potential customers about the benefits of descriptive markup and the virtues of Author/Editor. He was eloquent, and SGML and Author/Editor were in fact a pretty good fit for this particular organization, so the potential customers were very soon persuaded. They began giving the usual signs of being ready to close the deal, but Yuri kept talking, piling advantage upon advantage to the case for descriptive markup and SGML, and eventually they were practically tugging at his arms, reaching into their pockets for their checkbooks, and his colleague was making let’s wrap it up noises, and Yuri turned around, fixed them with his eye, and said But wait. There’s more.Now, the gist of that moment, the way the desire for clarity and the eagerness to show people all the ramifications and advantages of descriptive markup overpower the short-term desire to close the sale, the way that Yuri is so filled with enthusiasm that he can barely stop his exposition in order to allow people to hand him their money — these seem somehow so characteristic of Yuri and of his infectious enthusiasm that the story is now inextricably linked in our memory with Yuri.It’s ten years now — ten years and a few months — since the Extensible Markup Language, version 1.0, became a recommendation of the World Wide Web Consortium. There’s something a little artificial about anniversaries of this kind, and I don’t like to observe them too scrupulously or make too much of them. But it is useful from time to time to stop and think about things in a broader frame of reference, to reflect on where we were some time ago, where we wanted to go from there, where we went in fact, and where we would like to go from here. And we can do a lot worse than to use anniversaries like this one as occasions for such periodic self-examination.Yuri Rubinsky died the winter before the W3C formed the working group that eventually produced the XML specification. He had been one of the first and most persuasive members of the SGML community to argue that SGMLers should embrace the web as showing how useful and powerful an SGML application could be, instead of looking down on it for the shortcomings of its puny HTML tag set and the laughable inadequacies of most HTML processors. He wrote a book once, with Murray Maloney, called SGML on the Web, which is still worth reading for one of the most lucid descriptions you will find anywhere of the nature of descriptive markup []. So it’s no surprise, I guess, that when I think about XML and its place in a broader context, I find myself thinking about Yuri Rubinsky and about the story I just told you and about the phrase But wait, there’s more.Over time I have come to believe that the phrase But wait, there’s more — or the variant of the phrase which seems to fit Yuri’s willingness to accept the web as something we can learn from, But wait, there’s less, — I’ve come to believe that these can illuminate our situation in a variety of ways. Now, before I talk about some of them, I have to explain that I sometimes think there are two kinds of projects in the world. Other times, I think only that there often seem to be two kinds of projects in the world. I don’t actually know how many there are or whether these are really distinct. There are what you might call barn raisings — you have something you want to do, you gather the materials and people and resources that are necessary to do it, you do the thing, you raise the barn, and then everybody goes home again. (I may need to explain to people who aren’t from here that all through the US and Canada as settlement progressed westward through the 18th and 19th centuries and new land passed under cultivation, the coming together of communities to build barns for new farms — to build barns for each other — was an important social binding ritual that is still practiced in more conservative social communities such as those of the Mennonites and the Amish. So, a barn raising is an important social event as well as a finite project with an end.)And then there are other projects that you might call community farming. Again, you have something you want to do, you gather the people and resources you need, and you work together to accomplish your goal, but there is no final whistle, there is no point at which the roof beam has been raised, the roof is on, the barn is finished, and you can go home, because the task you’re talking about is an ongoing one. Once you have plowed the field, you have to start planting it. And once you have planted the field, you have to start weeding. And so eventually you have to harvest. And once you finish harvesting, you have to repair the plow.Now, it’s possible to be mistaken about the kind of work something is. The most obvious example that comes to my mind immediately is that when standards development organizations are young — when they are first created — it is easy to see that many people involved think of the formation of, say, a working group as a barn raising. Ah, we have a problem, we form a working group, they write the spec, and then they’re done, and everybody goes home. When standards development organizations grow older and when individuals gain more experience in standards work, they tend less and less, at least in my experience, to think of working groups as barn raising projects and more as farming projects because once the spec is there, if it’s going to stay around and be used, it will need maintenance, it will need errata, it will need amendments, it will need new versions, it will need the development of a better test suite, it will need interpretation of difficult passages, and so on and so forth.Now, there’s always a danger that a working group will just stay around out of inertia because its members are so lacking in imagination that they can’t get their heads around the idea that their work is done and they should go home, so every now and then an outside intervention is necessary to reorganize things. But there’s often a very good reason that working groups have a longer lifetime than some people might at first have expected.If we thought that the quiet revolution that Eduardo Gutentag was talking about the other day was a barn raising, we were wrong []. Revolutions are almost never barn raisings because, remember, if you succeed in your revolution, you suddenly find yourself responsible for day-to-day governance and then your work is never done. And we have in many ways succeeded in a quiet revolution. But that means there is a never-ending stream of new communities needing markup vocabularies. We need better algorithms for validation or for parsing or for processing or for styling or for any of the things that we do with marked up data. We need to standardize the XML form of office documents, as painful as that experience may be. We need to experiment with alternative ways of handling links and validation and styling and so forth and discontinuous structures that overlap. There is always more to be done in our quest to make descriptive markup ubiquitous and to help it fulfill the revolutionary potential that we see in it.Every paper at the conference illustrates one aspect or another of this work, and while I would like to discuss them all one by one individually, that would probably take another three or four days, and that might make some of your worry about catching your flights, so I’ll try to suppress my urge to comment in detail on each paper individually.Another sense of the phrase But wait, there’s more, is as a design reminder. When you’re designing version one, remember there will be more versions. This is not, unless of course you’ve managed to design a complete failure — this will not be the last version you want to do of this spec, so remember to provide some support for versioning your language. In this connection, it is worth suggesting to you that But wait, there’s less, is a good motto to adopt. Something is better than nothing. Correction: Almost anything is better than nothing when it comes to supporting versioning.It’s very tempting when you’re designing version 1.0 of something that is kinda complicated and kinda hard to say, Oh, man, we can’t think about everything at once. We have to focus. We have to identify non-goals. We have to modularize things. We hardly know what is going to be in 1.0, let alone what we might want to put in 2.0. We can’t design a versioning system that will allow the addition of the features we will need in 2.0 because we don’t know what they are. That is way too complicated; we will not get it right, so let’s focus on just the immediate task. If you allow a working group to fall into that line of thinking, you have every likelihood that the working group will do nothing at all about versioning. Case in point: the XML Schema 1.0 working group. We knew it was important; we spent a lot of time talking about it. And our discussion of it made clear that we didn’t have the first idea how to do a really good versioning mechanism, how to support all the kinds of changes that we would need to make in future versions of XSD, without building a lot of useless mechanisms to support changes that we weren’t going to turn out to make.The only perfect versioning mechanism — no cost without benefit — is a versioning mechanism that predicts exactly what changes are going to be necessary. No versioning mechanism designed without clairvoyance can be perfect. Important principle: It doesn’t have to be perfect to be useful. Those of you who were here Monday will have heard David Orchard mentioning HTML as a good example of a language that has survived versioning very well; he is not the only one []. It is a very common example, and in fact, they’re quite right: HTML did a great job of supporting versioning. Enthusiasts for HTML often will tell you, That is because they got it right. They did a perfect versioning mechanism. They said everything you need to know. The only rule you need is: Ignore what you don’t understand. Well, that is, I think, a slight over-simplification. HTML didn’t get it perfectly right. The versioning rule in HTML with regard to support for later versions of the HTML spec is quite simple: When you see a tag you don’t understand, ignore the tag. That is a good fallback. But as Sandro Hawke pointed out on Monday [], the best fallback for blink would be some other form of highlighting like red color or bold-italic or underscoring or very large. If you just ignore the tags and print the content, the one thing you have failed to do is indicate that that phrase is any different from its context, and that is almost certainly not the best possible fallback, although it is better than nothing.It’s also the case that quite often when you’re extending a vocabulary in the ways that HTML has been extended, there are two things you might want to ignore. Sometimes you want to ignore the tags. That is the right thing to do for the blink tag and the font tag and all sorts of phrase-level tags. Other times what you really want to do is ignore the element, which is the right thing to do for, say, the script element. If you have read any of the textbooks on Javascript that were written within the first ten years of the introduction of Javascript, you’ll remember that there is a three-page section that says: Don’t ask why, but at the very beginning of every script element you have to repeat these magic formulae. Don’t try to understand it; just do it. Alright, if you insist on knowing, this is a common delimiter intended for this processor that prevents that from going on, that is a delimiter for this other processor that allows it to ignore the first delimiter. Then, there is a special case in that processor that allows it get by despite the fact that it doesn’t understand what is going on. Aren’t you glad you insisted on knowing why? Again, don’t try to understand it; just copy this into the beginning of every one of your scripts.I seem to have exaggeraged slightly. In [], the discussion takes two pages (pp. 353f), and in [], the core of explanation takes only one page (p. 13), not three. Why? Because HTML didn’t get it perfectly right. There is no way in HTML to say this is an element that if you don’t understand, you should ignore the element instead of the tag.Okay, Ignore what you don’t understand is not a perfect rule. HTML didn’t get it perfectly right. HTML got it maybe a little less than half right. And HTML is nevertheless a huge success story when it comes to a language allowing itself to be versioned. Why? Because it did something. That glass that is only one-third full is one-third full and not two-thirds empty. Almost anything is better than nothing when it comes to supporting versioning. There is more to versioning than you understand. As Peter Brown told us, when you start out working on versioning above all, don’t assume you understand what the word means []. Quite true. There is more to versioning than your versioning mechanism is going to succeed in supporting. But that is okay. Wait, wait — there’s less.Exercise humility! This is another way of spinning the phrase But wait, there’s more, which gives it the sense of But wait, there’s more. Yes, I know, but that is okay. I’m not going to try to be everything to everyone. That has more general applicability. There is more to the problem — whatever problem it is you’re working on — than your personal or corporate views and interests. There are different people on the working group with different points of view, different values, and, yes, hard though it is to remember, different virtues and different contributions to make to the collective work, irritating though they will be from time to time. We as individuals are not the be all and end all of our collective work. There is more to the working group and to the work than that.Humility can be very hard to cultivate when so many of our working group colleagues not only remind us indirectly of our superiority but demonstrate it daily by their obstinancy in opposing what is clearly the right technical solution, that is, the one that we favor. But a little humility, even if it is not evenly distributed in the working group, can go a long way in helping working groups and other organizations to avoid the kinds of disasters that we heard about the other day and to minimize their effect when they happen anyway.But perhaps the most important application of the phrase But wait, there’s more, is to the future of descriptive markup itself. Was XML supposed to be a barn raising or a farming project? And, independent of what it was supposed to be, what did it turn out to be? And how many barns were we intending to raise before we went out into the fields and started plowing?Now, as I recall it, in 1996 we had a simple, clear plan. We wanted a web-friendly version — subset, cutout, profile, call it what you like — of SGML. We wanted a web-friendly version of DSSSL. We wanted a web-friendly version of HyTime. That is, we wanted web-friendly versions of the three major work items of ISO/IEC JTC1/SC18/WG8, which was the group that defined languages for document processing. Oddly enough, I don’t remember anyone ever saying we have to have a web-friendly version of the standard page description language. That one never seems to have caught on. I don’t understand why not.Alright, well, if that was our goal, it’s interesting to note that it’s done. We have web-friendly versions of all of those things. SGML begat XML. DSSSL begat XSL and XSL-FO. HyTime begat (at some remove, but still there is a direct genealogical relation) XLink and XPointer. Now, XLink and XPointer do not have the uptake that we had hoped for. But they are there for those who need them. DOM was not part of the original program as I understood it. More stuff started coming down the pike even before we were finished with that original program.But if what were involved in was a barn raising, and we’ve raised all three of the barns that we had intended, what are we doing here? I suspect that our presence in this room today is an indication that there was more to do. And there is more to do.I’ve spent a lot of time in the last few weeks talking to people about what should be next, what can be next. Ten years after SGML became an international standard, one way to tell the story is that a small group of people ended up trying to solve what seemed to them the single most pressing problem of SGML, which was the complexity of the specification, which prevented easy software development, which prevented wide-spread common tools, which prevented widespread adoption of markup languages.So, if we imagine a similar situation now, what is the small group of people gathering in some city far away — because they won’t be us — what are they working on, or what should they be working on? Or what should we be working on if we are going to take the future into our own hands? Interesting question; there are a lot of different answers. I don’t have time to go through all of them. I don’t have time to go very well through many of them at all. So I’ll focus on the biggest one. The biggest problem — I hate to say this because in my retrospective mood of the last few weeks I’ve also been thinking about the first time I ever gave a closing talk at a markup industry conference. It was 1992 at SGML ’92, and I gave a talk in which I was asked to predict the future, and I identified the biggest problem that faced us and what we should do to make progress on it, and the biggest problem then is still the biggest problem today. And that is the problem of semantics []. And it’s humbling to read a talk that you wrote 15-16 years ago and see the five or six things that you proposed as the right things to work on next and note that absolutely nothing has happened on any of those fronts, with one exception, which is an interesting exception. I suggested that one way to get a better grip on the semantics of markup would be to make it possible to identify that all X’s are Y’s, to identify class relations among markup constructs. Now, on that there has been progress. One of the major features of XML Schema 1.0 is precisely a system of type inheritance that is intended to and does in fact allow you to say precisely that kind of thing.Lots of people talk about XSD 1.0 and 1.1 type inheritance. I notice that no one talks about it as semantics. This would be troubling to me except that we have an excellent analogy that helps us explain that situation. Some of you will have noticed that whenever the workers in the field of artificial intelligence finally solve a problem, that problem ceases to be part of the field of artificial intelligence. It’s now just engineering. Artificial intelligence is effectively the name of all the interesting things that we would have to do to replicate human intelligence in artificial form that we don’t currently know how to do. If we know how to do them, they’re no longer AI. They’re just engineering in the same way that the difference between a normal computer and a supercomputer is not ever measured in cycles per second or floating point operations per second or logical inferences per second; it is measured in dollars unadjusted for inflation and as the cost of computing power has fallen, the threshold of being a supercomputer in terms of computational power has risen. In the same way, what we call semantics is all those things that we don’t really know how to do very well. Allen Renear pointed out to me this morning that some linguists will distinguish — well, linguists have always distinguished, you know, phonology and morphology, syntax and then semantics. Some linguists now distinguish semantics from pragmatics. Why is that? Is that because they know how to do semantics? No, it’s because pragmatics has crystallized out as a field that people feel they have some kind of grip on (or at least they think they have a grip on how to study it), whereas semantics remains the black hole into which we throw all the stuff we don’t know how to do, but we’d like to do someday if we could only figure out how.Semantics is a single noun, but it clearly doesn’t denote a single thing. It’s a cover term for our ignorance. So our goal really, if we want to have any feelings of success, shouldn’t be to solve the problem of semantics. It should be to isolate substructures within that complex or cultivate regions within that area and make them understood, knowing full well all the while that as we do so, they will cease to be regarded as covered by the term semantics. They may not be semantics, but they will still be useful things to be able to do.One form in which the problem of semantics presents itself is the problem of design, the problem of modeling. What is the right way, a friend of mine asked me recently, to design a language? How do I teach the guys who work for me, the ones who actually design the markup languages, how to do it right? How do I tell them how to tell the difference between a good markup design and a bad one? When I ask the question that way, I am very pessimistic because I think the short story is that good design involves hard thinking. And that means it’s just hard.Also, things seem to be getting worse. In 1992, at least according to the record of my talk, we thought we were nearing consensus on what counted as good design for markup languages. But the community has grown — the number of people involved in design has grown — and there is a lot of suboptimal XML out there. That was one of the main themes of the W3Quebec nocturne the other night here. Just how bad is the XML that you have seen in the wild? And the answer is: on the whole, pretty bad, some of it. There were some really outstanding examples of ugly vocabularies out there.I became aware, while thinking about this, that although we may not be able to solve the core problem, we may be able to make progress on it if we give ourselves better tools. Thinking is hard, and we don’t have the capability to automate it, at least not now, not until our friends in the AI department have finished eliminating the field of AI and actually created artificial intelligence. Until they do that, we may not be able to directly support hard thinking. But any design involves both hard thinking and a lot of bookkeeping, and if we can make better tools for the bookkeeping and for visualizing the results of designs, we may be able to make it easier for bears of middling brain to do good design.In that context, it seems to be a shame that although a number of people have mentioned the importance of prose documentation over the course of this conference, text and documentation tools and styles and procedures don’t seem to get much play. In a way, that is a shame. Another prospect that is frequently mentioned in this connection is compact syntaxes. I’m of two minds about compact syntaxes, partly because when I committed to SGML and XML, I committed hard, and syntax without angle brackets makes me nervous, you know. The road to hell is paved with compact syntax. But a lot of people like them a lot, and certainly the one-to-one mappability between the XML representation of RELAX NG schemas and the compact syntax does seem to have prevented the worst from happening there. And compact syntaxes do have the advantage that they allow you to get more information within the visual field of the person doing the hard thinking than is otherwise feasible with a verbose notation, and if there is one thing we have learned from reading Edward Tufte, it is that getting more information into the visual field in a tractable form is a good thing to do.I think that our difficulties with semantics are related to the interoperability problems that were identified by Jerome McDonough []. I think there may be two sets of forces at work in the kinds of problems he was talking about. First, there is a sort of social pendulum. As he noted, the rhetoric used to sell XML at the outset was all about freedom and independence and autonomy. And there was the promise of interoperability, which is the seed of the contradiction, but a lot of emphasis on freedom and autonomy. That is, I think, not an uncommon phenomenon. If you are asking me to adopt a new technology with which I’m not currently familiar, I have two concerns. I’d like to make sure I’m going to get some advantage from it (and stopping you harping at me may be enough of an advantage) but I also want to make sure that my costs are limited and that it does not impede the freedom I currently have to make up my own mind about certain things. So, I at least tend to be very wary of the kinds of ontological commitments a new technology may impose upon me.In the Text Encoding Initiative, we had this problem in spades. We were quite up front about the fact that markup of documents is a hermeneutic activity. But hermeneutics is part of the core activity of everyone in our target usage audience. The last thing a professor of English literature wants to hear is: You should adopt this new technology, and it will force you into a particular style of interpretation. No, no — that way lies complete non-adoption. Now, it’s true that if you are very upfront about that, you will not have the kind of interoperability problems that Jerry McDonough talked about [], but not because you have interoperability. The problem simply won’t arise because no one will have adopted the technology in the first place.So, I think the rhetoric of freedom is likely to be the emphasis in a lot of new technologies, and concern about interoperability will come a little later. Now, I think it’s rhetorically important, but I also don’t think it’s exactly deceptive to say at the outset that XML does help with interoperability. Because having markup that you understand and that you control is the first prerequisite to solving your interoperability problems. As long as my data is controlled by anonymous corporation X and your data is controlled by anonymous corporation Y, we have no hope of addressing the interoperability problem. Independence from the anonymous entities X and Y — or not anonymous, in some cases — is the first prerequisite of interoperability.The adoption of XML, with all the autonomy that XML entails, did not create the interoperability problems. It exposed them; it allowed them to come to the surface. And what you will see in the TEI community is that the experience of people in the TEI noticing that they don’t have the level of interoperability that they wish for has led to a number of movements within the TEI community to make more concrete and fuller agreements. So there is a swing from the emphasis on the freedom to the emphasis on interoperability, and that may well produce a backlash later on.The second set of forces at work here is the fact of incremental consensus. There is only so much agreement in the room at any given point, or as Donald Rumsfeld might have said, You ship the spec with the level of consensus you have, not with the level of consensus you might wish you had had. SQL-89 had one of the world’s most eccentric type systems. Why? Because they could all agree on integer, and they could all agree on a couple of other types, but there were a whole lot of types on which they could not agree so they just left them out, with the full expectation that people would extend SQL-89 in different ways. As they did. And that led to the well-known complications of SQL-89 interoperability. But the alternative would seem to be delaying the spec even further, until you have completely missed your market window.Sometimes the reason you don’t have consensus on the details like, well, what should the date look like, is that you actually have disagreements. Sometimes it’s because some people in the room are not ready to reach an agreement on it because they don’t foresee that it will be a problem. In any working group, you’re going to have some people who know what is going on and predict pretty accurately what is going to happen, and they can say, Gee, you know, if we don’t specify which date format to use, that date field is going to be interoperable at this level, but not at the higher levels that we would like. And my experience is that quite often when those people try to explain the problem to the other people in the room, they get deer-in-headlights eyes, and at some point, you have to say, Well, they’ll learn eventually, and experience does help people learn. When my university examined client server software, we adopted Gopher. We didn’t even look at HTTP and the World Wide Web. If we had, we would have adopted Gopher because we could understand it; it was simple, and the additional complexity of HTML would have seemed utterly unmotivated. Six months experience with running and using distributed information systems taught us plenty, and after six months, we would have understood why HTML had the additional complexity it had, and why HTTP was more complicated than the Gopher Protocol, and at that point, we might well have adopted — and in fact did, though it was a couple of years later — the World Wide Web instead of Gopher. But without that experience, we were not in a position to understand, and that is going to be true of many people in the working group room as well.Now, I feel terrible saying that since 1992 we have made no progress in semantics because I’m acutely aware that there are a lot of people in the room, and a lot of communities with people who are not in the room, who have spent a lot of time and effort over the last decade working on what they think of as solutions to semantics. Topic maps on the one hand, RDF on the other — how can I stand here and say that the RDF and Topic Map communities have made no progress? Well, I won’t say that. But then, what is wrong with them as a solution to semantics problems? The problem I have with them is that very little of the work that I understand in Topic Maps or RDF connects with the semantics problems that I have in mind when I say We the users of descriptive markup have a problem with semantics. What I said in 1992 was:
But if data portability is good, application portability is better. If we are to make good on the promises we have made on behalf of SGML to our superiors, our users, and our colleagues, about how helpful SGML can be to them, we need application portability. And for application portability, alas, so far SGML and the world around it provide very little help.Application portability is achieved if you can move an application from one platform to another and have it process the data in “the same way”. A crucial first step in this process is to define what that way is, so that the claim that Platform X and Platform Y do the same thing can be discussed and tested. But SGML provides no mechanism for defining processing semantics, so we have no vocabulary for doing so.
Now, of course, there are lots of good reasons that SGML doesn’t provide a vocabulary of processing primitives, and it’s exactly right. But it simply means that in order to solve the problem of application portability, we need to choose and develop — choose, establish, develop, provide — some way of getting at those semantics. Do RDF and Topic Maps help here? How? Not, alas, in my experience. They offer a lot of functionality. They offer many semantically-rich bits. They work very well with data that is extremely regular, like triples or associations. They work a little less well with text. But that is where I came in; that is what I’m looking for help with.Text is not a corner case. If we focus only on the tractable, regular cases because those are the ones that are tractable in our attempts to solve semantics, we’re a little bit like the drunk who is looking for his keys under the street light instead of where he lost them because the light is better there. Intelligence, as Tim Bray used to say, is a textual application. There is a reason that the budget of the United States is printed as a book with notes, footnotes, and preface and commentary; it’s because the simple array of numbers is not the whole story. You get the kind of regularity you get in relational tables, or for that matter in triples and associations, by banishing nuance and details to the footnotes. But the footnotes will need to be text.It’s interesting, of course — we are acutely aware as we write prose definitions of the meaning of our markup that even when we write it really, really well, there will be readers who are ingenious enough to find ambiguities and uncertainties and vagueness and even, God forbid, contradictions in what we have written. Sometimes they’re illusions, but quite often, they’re there; we just didn’t see them. Murata Makoto found more ambiguities in the XML 1.0 spec than I would have ever imagined, by the simple procedure of translating it into Japanese and saying, Well, how do I translate this sentence? There are two different ways. Which does it mean? Ask me to tell you about the meaning of may not sometime.So, it is natural that people who have been working with prose have always wanted to move to some sort of formalism. Allen Renear once gave a talk at Extreme Markup Languages in which he talked about the ability to have statements in modal logic completely replace the prose description because they would be unambiguous, they would be clear, they would be precise, they would be compact []. Before we go there, however, we should note that there are no notations that are so precisely defined and so widespread and so widely used as, say, programming languages.Recently, the Communications of the ACM published an interview with Donald Knuth, who is widely and justifiably regarded as perhaps the greatest programmer in the world []. Remember what Knuth did? One of Knuth’s major contributions to programming technology is the introduction of prose into the documentation of programs — the invention of literate programming, in which, as he says, you say everything twice.Knuth says, As I’m writing The Art of Computer Programming, I realized the key to good exposition is to say everything twice: informally and formally. The reader gets to lodge it in his brain in two different ways, and they reinforce each other. In writing a computer program, it’s also natural to say everything in the program twice. You say it in English, what the goals of this part of the program are, but then you say it in your computer language. You alternate between the informal and the formal. Literate programming enforces this idea. It’s as if programmers have to be Yossarian in Catch-22; you will remember that Yossarian was in the hospital because he saw everything twice []. Seeing everything twice is a nice metaphor for the play of memory and expectation that is at the heart of the novel Catch-22, but I won’t go there.You have to say everything twice. This is also the mechanism adopted in formal specification languages like Z. Every Z textbook I have ever read has some passage where they say You will at some point say, ‘Ah, I have got it’, and you will go home, and you will write ten pages of Z formalism, and you will go back to your colleagues, and you will say, ‘I have solved it. Here is the design’. You do not have the design. You do not have a Z document. If it is only the formalism, it’s not a specification. You must say everything twice. The two ways of saying it reinforce each other, clarify each other, disambiguate each other.One good example is the discussion on page 8 of [] of the mutual reinforcement of formal and informal expression in a specification, and the discussion on page 9 of the mathematical syndrome.So, I sometimes think that what we really need for practical purposes is not just the pure formalism that I associate with RDF and, so a slightly lesser extent, with Topic Maps — modulo the determined resistance to going the final step to full formalism that Murray Altheim was exhibiting the other day []. And what we really need is not prose by itself. What we really need is both. We need a way to embed the formal syntax into prose, as a sort of paraphrase. The work Sam Hunting reported on the other day illustrates this very precisely []. So does the RDFa specification published recently by the World Wide Web Consortium. Both of them turn the document author into a kind of Yossarian: they enable us to say everything twice, once in the formalism so it’s tractable for machines, and once in prose, where the nuances and the hesitations and the limitations can come across to the reader.I think we also need to have explicit tools for talking about translation from our markup into other formalisms. So, the kinds of things that Dichev, Dicheva, and Ditcheva were talking about this morning are relevant here []. Now, there’s a lot to say about translation, translation mechanisms, and tools to support it. I won’t talk about them now because they are too important, there’s too much to say, I’ll get excited, and you’ll be here for another hour and a half. If we solve these problems or even if we just make some progress on them, we will, I think, fairly soon decide that they’re not really part of semantics because we know how to deal with them, but we will be in a much more comfortable world than we are now.We’re almost done here, almost done with this talk, almost done with this conference.But wait. There is more.There is more work for each of us to do. There is more for each of us to learn. There is more for each of us to teach the others. But there is more to all of that than I can tell you about here now. So really, it’s up to you. Go home now, this barn raising is over. When you get home, you’ll have plenty to do, but come back next year and tell the rest of us all about it.Thank you. Have a safe journey home.References Altheim, Murray. 2008. Informal onotology design: A wiki-based assertion framework. Proceedings of Balisage 2008, Montréal. 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